How To Repair Pool Plumbing

Systems for conveying fluids

Plumbing is whatever system that conveys fluids for a wide range of applications. Plumbing uses pipes, valves, plumbing fixtures, tanks, and other apparatuses to convey fluids.^[1] Heating and cooling (HVAC), waste removal, and beverage water delivery are among the well-nigh common uses for plumbing, only information technology is not limited to these applications.^[ii] The word derives from the Latin for lead, plumbum, equally the first constructive pipes used in the Roman era were lead pipes.^[3]

In the developed world, plumbing infrastructure is disquisitional to public health and sanitation.^[4] ^[five]

Boilermakers and pipefitters are not plumbers although they work with pipage as office of their trade and their work can include some plumbing.

History

Plumbing originated during ancient civilizations, as they adult public baths and needed to provide potable water and wastewater removal for larger numbers of people.^[vi]

The Mesopotamians introduced the world to clay sewer pipes around 4000 BCE, with the earliest examples constitute in the Temple of Bel at Nippur and at Eshnunna,^[7] used to remove wastewater from sites, and capture rainwater, in wells. The city of Uruk contains the oldest known examples of brick synthetic Latrines, constructed atop interconnecting fired dirt sewer pipes, c.3200 BCE.^[8] ^[9] Dirt pipes were later used in the Hittite city of Hattusa.^[x] They had easily detachable and replaceable segments, and immune for cleaning.

Standardized earthen plumbing pipes with wide flanges making use of cobblestone for preventing leakages appeared in the urban settlements of the Indus Valley Culture by 2700 BC.^[11]

Copper pipe appeared in Egypt by 2400 BCE, with the Pyramid of Sahure and bordering temple complex at Abusir, establish to be connected by a copper waste piping.^[12]

The give-and-take "plumber" dates from the Roman Empire.^[xiii] The Latin for lead is plumbum . Roman roofs used pb in conduits and drain pipes^[xiv] and some were also covered with pb. Lead was as well used for pipe and for making baths.^[15]

Plumbing reached its early noon in ancient Rome, which saw the introduction of expansive systems of aqueducts, tile wastewater removal, and widespread apply of atomic number 82 pipes. The Romans used lead pipage inscriptions to prevent water theft. With the Fall of Rome both water supply and sanitation stagnated—or regressed—for well over 1,000 years. Improvement was very slow, with little effective progress fabricated until the growth of modernistic densely populated cities in the 1800s. During this period, public health authorities began pressing for ameliorate waste matter disposal systems to be installed, to prevent or control epidemics of disease. Before, the waste product disposal system had consisted of collecting waste and dumping it on the ground or into a river. Eventually the development of separate, underground h2o and sewage systems eliminated open sewage ditches and cesspools.

In post-classical Kilwa The wealthy enjoyed indoor plumbing in their stone homes.^[16] ^[17]

Nigh large cities today pipage solid wastes to sewage treatment plants in club to separate and partially purify the h2o, before elimination into streams or other bodies of water. For beverage water use, galvanized fe piping was commonplace in the U.s. from the late 1800s until around 1960. Later on that period, copper pipe took over, start soft copper with flared fittings, and so with rigid copper tubing using soldered fittings.

The use of lead for potable water declined sharply after World War Ii because of increased awareness of the dangers of atomic number 82 poisoning. At this time, copper piping was introduced as a better and safer alternative to lead pipes.^[xviii]

Systems

Copper piping organization in a building

The major categories of plumbing systems or subsystems are:^[xix]

potable cold and hot tap water supply
plumbing drainage venting
sewage systems and septic systems with or without hot h2o heat recycling and graywater recovery and treatment systems
Rainwater, surface, and subsurface h2o drainage
fuel gas piping
hydronics, i.due east. heating and cooling systems using water to send thermal energy, every bit in district heating systems, similar for example the New York City steam system.

Water pipes

A h2o pipage is a pipe or tube, frequently made of plastic or metal,^[a] that carries pressurized and treated fresh water to a building (every bit part of a municipal water system), also equally inside the building.

History

Lead was the favoured material for water pipes for many centuries because its malleability made it practical to work into the desired shape. Such utilise was so common that the discussion "plumbing" derives from plumbum, the Latin give-and-take for lead. This was a source of lead-related health problems in the years before the health hazards of ingesting lead were fully understood; among these were stillbirths and loftier rates of infant mortality. Pb water pipes were however widely used in the early 20th century and remain in many households. Lead-tin alloy solder was usually used to join copper pipes, but modernistic practice uses tin-antimony blend solder instead in order to eliminate lead hazards.^[twenty]

Despite the Romans' mutual employ of lead pipes, their aqueducts rarely poisoned people. Different other parts of the world where lead pipes cause poisoning, the Roman h2o had so much calcium in it that a layer of plaque prevented the h2o contacting the atomic number 82 itself. What frequently causes defoliation is the large amount of evidence of widespread lead poisoning, particularly amidst those who would have had like shooting fish in a barrel admission to piped water,^[21] an unfortunate issue of lead existence used in cookware and as an additive to processed food and drink (for example every bit a preservative in wine).^[22] Roman lead pipe inscriptions provided information on the owner to prevent water theft.

Wooden pipes were used in London and elsewhere during the 16th and 17th centuries. The pipes were hollowed-out logs which were tapered at the terminate with a small hole in which the water would pass through.^[23] The multiple pipes were so sealed together with hot animal fat. Wooden pipes were used in Philadelphia,^[24] Boston, and Montreal in the 1800s. Built-upwards wooden tubes were widely used in the Usa during the 20th century. These pipes (used in place of corrugated iron or reinforced concrete pipes) were fabricated of sections cut from short lengths of woods. Locking of adjacent rings with hardwood dowel pins produced a flexible structure. Almost 100,000 feet of these wooden pipes were installed during WW2 in drainage culverts, storm sewers and conduits, under highways and at army camps, naval stations, airfields and ordnance plants.

Cast iron and ductile iron piping was long a lower-cost alternative to copper before the advent of durable plastic materials just special non-conductive fittings must exist used where transitions are to be made to other metallic pipes (except for terminal fittings) in order to avoid corrosion owing to electrochemical reactions between dissimilar metals (run into galvanic cell).^[25]

Bronze fittings and short pipe segments are normally used in combination with diverse materials.^[26]

Deviation between pipes and tubes

Typical PVC municipal water main beingness installed in Ontario, Canada

A plastic water pipage being installed. Note that the inner tube is actually transporting the water, while the outer tube just serves every bit a protective casing

The deviation between pipes and tubes is a affair of sizing. For instance, PVC pipe for plumbing applications and galvanized steel pipe are measured in iron pipe size (IPS). Copper tube, CPVC, PeX and other tubing is measured nominally, basically an boilerplate bore. These sizing schemes allow for universal accommodation of transitional fittings. For case, 1/2" PeX tubing is the aforementioned size every bit one/2" copper tubing. 1/2" PVC on the other hand is not the same size equally 1/2" tubing, and therefore requires either a threaded male person or female adapter to connect them. When used in agronomical irrigation, the singular form "piping" is often used as a plural.^[27]

Pipage is available in rigid joints, which come in various lengths depending on the material. Tubing, in particular copper, comes in rigid hard tempered joints or soft tempered (annealed) rolls. PeX and CPVC tubing as well comes in rigid joints or flexible rolls. The atmosphere of the copper, whether it is a rigid articulation or flexible roll, does non touch on the sizing.^[27]

The thicknesses of the water pipe and tube walls tin can vary. Considering piping and tubing are bolt, having a greater wall thickness implies higher initial price. Thicker walled pipe more often than not implies greater durability and higher force per unit area tolerances. Pipage wall thickness is denoted by various schedules or for large bore polyethylene pipe in the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland by the Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR), divers as the ratio of the pipe diameter to its wall thickness. Pipe wall thickness increases with schedule, and is available in schedules twenty, xl, 80, and higher in special cases. The schedule is largely adamant by the operating pressure of the organisation, with higher pressures commanding greater thickness. Copper tubing is bachelor in four wall thicknesses: type DWV (thinnest wall; only allowed as bleed piping per UPC), type 'One thousand' (thin; typically only immune as drain pipage by IPC code), blazon '50' (thicker, standard duty for water lines and water service), and blazon 'K' (thickest, typically used underground between the main and the meter).

Wall thickness does not affect pipe or tubing size.^[28] 1/two" L copper has the same outer diameter as ane/two" M or M copper. The same applies to pipe schedules. As a consequence, a slight increase in pressure losses is realized due to a decrease in flowpath as wall thickness is increased. In other words, ane foot of one/2" Fifty copper has slightly less volume than ane foot of 1/two Chiliad copper.^{[ citation needed ]}

Materials

Water systems of ancient times relied on gravity for the supply of water, using pipes or channels usually made of dirt, pb, bamboo, wood, or rock. Hollowed wooden logs wrapped in steel banding were used for plumbing pipes, particularly water mains. Logs were used for h2o distribution in England close to 500 years ago. US cities began using hollowed logs in the late 1700s through the 1800s. Today, most plumbing supply pipe is fabricated out of steel, copper, and plastic; almost waste (as well known as "soil")^[29] out of steel, copper, plastic, and bandage iron.^[29]

The directly sections of plumbing systems are called "pipes" or "tubes". A piping is typically formed via casting or welding, whereas a tube is made through extrusion. Piping normally has thicker walls and may be threaded or welded, while tubing is thinner-walled and requires special joining techniques such as brazing, pinch fitting, crimping, or for plastics, solvent welding. These joining techniques are discussed in more detail in the piping and plumbing fittings article.

Steel

Galvanized steel potable water supply and distribution pipes are normally institute with nominal pipe sizes from 3⁄8 inch (9.5 mm) to 2 inches (51 mm). It is rarely used today for new construction residential plumbing. Steel piping has National Piping Thread (NPT) standard tapered male threads, which connect with female tapered threads on elbows, tees, couplers, valves, and other fittings. Galvanized steel (often known but as "galv" or "atomic number 26" in the plumbing merchandise) is relatively expensive, and hard to work with due to weight and requirement of a pipe threader. Information technology remains in common employ for repair of existing "galv" systems and to satisfy edifice lawmaking non-combustibility requirements typically establish in hotels, apartment buildings and other commercial applications. Information technology is also extremely durable and resistant to mechanical abuse. Black lacquered steel pipe is the most widely used pipe material for fire sprinklers and natural gas.

Most typical unmarried family unit home systems won't require supply piping larger than 3⁄4 inch (nineteen mm) due to expense too as steel piping'south tendency to get obstructed from internal rusting and mineral deposits forming on the within of the piping over time once the internal galvanizing zinc coating has degraded. In beverage h2o distribution service, galvanized steel pipage has a service life of about xxx to fifty years, although it is non uncommon for it to be less in geographic areas with corrosive water contaminants.

Copper

Copper pipe and tubing was widely used for domestic water systems in the latter half of the twentieth century. Demand for copper products has fallen due to the dramatic increase in the price of copper, resulting in increased need for culling products including PEX and stainless steel.

Plastic

Plastic hot and common cold supply piping for a sink

Plastic pipage is in wide use for domestic water supply and drain-waste-vent (DWV) piping. Principal types include: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was produced experimentally in the 19th century simply did not get applied to manufacture until 1926, when Waldo Semon of BF Goodrich Co. developed a method to plasticize PVC, making it easier to procedure. PVC pipage began to be manufactured in the 1940s and was in wide apply for Drain-Waste-Vent piping during the reconstruction of Federal republic of germany and Japan following WWII. In the 1950s, plastics manufacturers in Western Europe and Japan began producing acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) pipe. The method for producing cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) was also developed in the 1950s. Plastic supply pipes have get increasingly mutual, with a variety of materials and fittings employed.

PVC/CPVC – rigid plastic pipes similar to PVC drain pipes but with thicker walls to bargain with municipal water pressure, introduced around 1970. PVC stands for polyvinyl chloride, and information technology has become a common replacement for metal piping. PVC should exist used only for cold water, or for venting. CPVC can be used for hot and cold potable h2o supply. Connections are made with primers and solvent cements as required by code.^[thirty]
PP – The material is used primarily in housewares, nutrient packaging, and clinical equipment,^[31] but since the early 1970s has seen increasing employ worldwide for both domestic hot and cold water. PP pipes are heat fused, being unsuitable for the utilise of glues, solvents, or mechanical fittings. PP pipe is often used in light-green building projects.^[32]
PBT – flexible (commonly gray or black) plastic pipe which is attached to barbed fittings and secured in place with a copper crimp ring. The primary manufacturer of PBT tubing and fittings was driven into defalcation past a grade-action lawsuit over failures of this organisation.^{[ citation needed ]} Still, Lead and PBT tubing has since returned to the market and codes, typically first for "exposed locations" such as risers.
PEX – cantankerous-linked polyethylene system with mechanically joined fittings employing barbs, and crimped steel or copper rings.
Polytanks – plastic polyethylene cisterns, hole-and-corner water tanks, higher up footing water tanks, are normally made of linear polyethylene suitable as a potable water storage tank, provided in white, black or green.
Aqua – known equally PEX-Al-PEX, for its PEX/aluminum sandwich, consisting of aluminum pipe sandwiched between layers of PEX, and connected with modified brass pinch fittings. In 2005, many of these fittings were recalled.^{[ farther caption needed ]}

Present-day water-supply systems employ a network of loftier-pressure pumps, and pipes in buildings are now made of copper,^[33] brass, plastic (especially cross-linked polyethylene called PEX, which is estimated to be used in 60% of single-family homes^[34]), or other nontoxic material. Due to its toxicity, virtually cities moved away from lead water-supply piping past the 1920s in the United States,^[35] although lead pipes were approved by national plumbing codes into the 1980s,^[36] and lead was used in plumbing solder for drinking h2o until information technology was banned in 1986.^[35] Bleed and vent lines are made of plastic, steel, cast iron, or lead.^[37] ^[38]

Gallery

A specific water pipe made for employ with pressure level vessels. The pipe can sustain loftier pressure-water and is relatively small
Concrete water pipe
Connecting to an existing water line (white pipe) with a stainless steel tapping sleeve and valve (red). A concrete thrust block is being formed behind the new connection.
Sewer pipe

Components

In addition to lengths of pipe or tubing, pipe fittings such equally valves, elbows, tees, and unions. are used in plumbing systems.^[39] Pipage and fittings are held in place with piping hangers and strapping.

Plumbing fixtures are exchangeable devices that use water and can be connected to a building'due south plumbing organisation. They are considered to be "fixtures", in that they are semi-permanent parts of buildings, not unremarkably owned or maintained separately. Plumbing fixtures are seen by and designed for the stop-users. Some examples of fixtures include water closets^[40] (also known as toilets), urinals, bidets, showers, bathtubs, utility and kitchen sinks, drinking fountains, ice makers, humidifiers, air washers, fountains, and center wash stations.

Sealants

Threaded pipe joints are sealed with thread seal tape or pipe dope. Many plumbing fixtures are sealed to their mounting surfaces with plumber'due south putty.^[41]

Equipment and tools

A plumber tightening the plumbing fixtures on a gas supply line.

Fitting includes devices often behind walls or in utility spaces which are not seen past the general public. It includes water meters, pumps, expansion tanks, back menstruum preventers, water filters, UV sterilization lights, water softeners, water heaters, heat exchangers, gauges, and control systems.

At that place are many tools a plumber needs to practise a good plumbing task. While many simple plumbing tasks tin be completed with a few common hand held tools, other more complex jobs crave specialised tools, designed specifically to make the task easier.

Specialized plumbing tools include pipe wrenches, flaring pliers, piping vise, piping bending machine, pipe cutter, dies, and joining tools such equally soldering torches and crimp tools. New tools have been developed to help plumbers set up issues more than efficiently. For example, plumbers use video cameras for inspections of hidden leaks or other problems; they as well utilise hydro jets, and loftier pressure hydraulic pumps connected to steel cables for trench-less sewer line replacement.

Flooding from excessive rain or clogged sewers may require specialized equipment, such as a heavy duty pumper truck designed to vacuum raw sewage.^{[ citation needed ]}

Problems

Leaner take been shown to live in "premises plumbing systems". The latter refers to the "pipes and fixtures within a edifice that transport water to taps subsequently it is delivered past the utility".^[42] Community water systems have been known for centuries to spread waterborne diseases similar typhoid and cholera. However, "opportunistic premises plumbing pathogens" accept been recognized simply more recently: Legionella pneumophila, discovered in 1976, Mycobacterium avium, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the about usually tracked leaner, which people with depressed immunity can inhale or ingest and may get infected with.^[43] Some of the locations where these opportunistic pathogens tin can grow include faucets, shower heads, h2o heaters and along piping walls. Reasons that favor their growth are "loftier surface-to-volume ratio, intermittent stagnation, low disinfectant residuum, and warming cycles". A loftier surface-to-volume ratio, i.e. a relatively large surface area allows the bacteria to form a biofilm, which protects them from disinfection.^[43]

Regulation

Much of the plumbing piece of work in populated areas is regulated by government or quasi-government agencies due to the direct touch on on the public'southward health, safety, and welfare. Plumbing installation and repair work on residences and other buildings more often than not must be washed according to plumbing and building codes to protect the inhabitants of the buildings and to ensure safe, quality structure to hereafter buyers. If permits are required for piece of work, plumbing contractors typically secure them from the government on behalf of home or building owners.^{[ citation needed ]}

Commonwealth of australia

In Commonwealth of australia, the national governing body for plumbing regulation is the Australian Building Codes Board. They are responsible for the creation of the National Construction Code (NCC), Book three of which, the Plumbing Regulations 2008^[44] and the Plumbing Code of Australia,^[45] pertains to plumbing.

Each Government at the land level has their own Authorisation and regulations in place for licensing plumbers. They are besides responsible for the interpretation, administration and enforcement of the regulations outlined in the NCC.^[46] These Authorities are usually established for the sole purpose of regulating plumbing activities in their respective states/territories. However, several land level regulation acts are quite outdated, with some notwithstanding operating on local policies introduced more a decade ago. This has led to an increment in plumbing regulatory issues non covered under current policy, and as such, many policies are currently beingness updated to cover these more modern issues. The updates include inverse to the minimum experience and training requirements for licensing, additional work standards for new and more specific kinds of plumbing, likewise every bit adopting the Plumbing Code of Australia into country regulations in an effort to standardise plumbing regulations beyond the country.

Kingdom of norway

In Norway, new domestic plumbing installed since 1997 has had to satisfy the requirement that it should be hands accessible for replacement subsequently installation.^[47] This has led to the development of the pipe-in-piping system as a de facto requirement for domestic plumbing.

Uk

In the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland the professional body is the Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering (educational charity status) and it is true that the trade still remains virtually ungoverned;^[48] at that place are no systems in place to monitor or command the activities of unqualified plumbers or those home owners who choose to undertake installation and maintenance works themselves, despite the wellness and safety issues which arise from such works when they are undertaken incorrectly; encounter Wellness Aspects of Plumbing (HAP) published jointly by the Globe Health Arrangement (WHO) and the World Plumbing Council (WPC).^[49] ^[l] WPC has subsequently appointed a representative to the Globe Health Organization to have forward various projects related to Wellness Aspects of Plumbing.^[51]

U.s.

In the The states, plumbing codes and licensing are generally controlled by state and local governments. At the national level, the Environmental Protection Agency has set guidelines about what constitutes lead-free plumbing fittings and pipes, in club to comply with the Safe Drinking Water Human action.^[52]

Some widely used Standards in the United States are:^{[ citation needed ]}

ASME A112.half-dozen.iii – Flooring and Trench Drains
ASME A112.6.4 – Roof, Deck, and Balcony Drains
ASME A112.xviii.i/CSA B125.1 – Plumbing Supply Fittings
ASME A112.19.ane/CSA B45.2 – Enameled Cast Iron and Enameled Steel Plumbing Fixtures
ASME A112.xix.2/CSA B45.one – Ceramic Plumbing fixtures

See besides

Active fire protection
Copper pipe
Domestic water system
Double-walled pipage
EPA Lead and Copper Rule
Fire hose
Flange
Garden hose
HDPE pipe
Heat pipe
Hose
MS Pipe, MS Tube
Passive fire protection
Pipage
Pipage and tube bough
Pipefitter
Pipe network assay
Pipeline transport
Piping and plumbing fittings
Pipe support
Plastic pipework
Plastic pressure level pipe systems
Plumbing & Drainage Institute
Plumbosolvency
Sanitation in ancient Rome
Tube
Victaulic
Water supply network

References

^ Muscroft, Steve (March 14, 2022). Plumbing. Elsevier. p. 3. ISBN9781136373152.
^ Blankenbaker, Keith (1992). Modern Plumbing . Goodheart Willcox.
^ "What Is The Origin Of The Word "plumbing"?". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. May 12, 1942. Retrieved Dec 27, 2022.
^ "Health Aspects of Plumbing".
^ Plumbing: the Arteries of Civilization, Modern Marvels video serial, The History Channel, AAE-42223, A&Due east Telly, 1996
^ "Archaeologists Urge Pentagon To Keep Soldiers From Destroying". Herald-Periodical. March 19, 2003. Retrieved December 27, 2022.
^ Shush, Joseph (April 24, 2022). FLUORIDATED WATER CONTROVERSY. ISBN9781365912870 . Retrieved August 4, 2022.
^ Mitchell, Piers D. (March three, 2022). Sanitation, Latrines and Intestinal Parasites in Past Populations. Routledge. p. 22. ISBN978-ane-317-05953-0.
^ Wald, Chelsea (May 26, 2022). "The hugger-mugger history of ancient toilets". Nature News. 533 (7604): 456–458. Bibcode:2016Natur.533..456W. doi:10.1038/533456a. PMID 27225101. S2CID 4398699.
^ Burney, Charles (Apr 19, 2004). Historical Dictionary of the Hittites. Scarecrow Printing. ISBN978-0-8108-6564-8.
^ Teresi et al. 2002
^ Bunson, Margaret (May 14, 2022). Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Egypt. Infobase Publishing. p. half-dozen. ISBN978-one-4381-0997-8.
^ Pulsifer, William H. Notes For a History of Lead, New York University Printing, 1888. pp. 132, 158
^ Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome, Vol. 2, A & C Blackness, 1892
^ Historical production and uses of lead. ila-lead.org
^ The Travels of Ibn Battuta
^ Cartwright, Mark (March 29, 2022). "Kilwa". World History Encyclopedia.
^ "Public Notice .Lead Contamination Informative City Ok Moscow Water System". Moscow-Pullman Daily News. August 12, 1988. Retrieved December 27, 2022.
^ "Basic Plumbing Arrangement". January 13, 2022. Retrieved Jan 4, 2022.
^ "Lead in Drinking Water". Epa.gov. Feb xx, 2022. Retrieved January 22, 2022.
^ Hansen, Roger. "WATER AND WASTEWATER SYSTEMS IN IMPERIAL ROME". Waterhistory.org. Retrieved January 22, 2022.
^ Grout, James. "Lead Poisoning and Rome". Encyclopaedia Romana. 2022.
^ "Wooden water pipe". BBC. Retrieved January 22, 2022.
^ Rosenwald, Mike (February 11, 2022). "Philadelphia's plumbing revolution: woods pipes - Retropod". Washington Post.
^ "Types of Pipage Material". Virginia's Community Colleges. Retrieved January 22, 2022.
^ Worldwide Market for Industrial and Domestic Water Equipment equally of 2010. PwC. March 2022. Retrieved Jan 28, 2022.
^ ^a ^b "Deviation between Pipes and Tubes". Retrieved Jan 22, 2022.
^ "Wall thickness does not touch on pipe o" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September three, 2022. Retrieved January 22, 2022.
^ ^a ^b https://www.cscplates.com/blog/what-is-bandage-iron-soil-pipe/ What is cast iron soil pipe
^ "What's the difference between PVC and CPVC pipe?". August 15, 2022.
^ Bidisha Mukherjee. "Polypropylene Backdrop and Uses". Buzzle. Archived from the original on February viii, 2022. Retrieved Feb 7, 2022.
^ "Walking The Talk". pmengineer.com.
^ Copper Tube Handbook, the Copper Development Association, New York, U.s., 2006
^ California's PEX Battle Continues. Builderonline.com
^ ^a ^b Macek, MD; Matte, TD; Sinks, T; Malvitz, DM (January 2006). "Claret lead concentrations in children and method of water fluoridation in the United states of america, 1988–1994". Ecology Health Perspectives. 114 (ane): 130–iv. doi:10.1289/ehp.8319. PMC1332668. PMID 16393670.
^ Rabin, Richard (March 6, 2022). "The Lead Industry and Atomic number 82 Water Pipes "A Modest CAMPAIGN"". American Journal of Public Health. 98 (9): 1584–1592. doi:x.2105/AJPH.2007.113555. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC2509614. PMID 18633098.
^ Uniform Plumbing Code, IAPMO
^ International Plumbing Code, ICC
^ "Miscellaneous Valves". Archived from the original on April 26, 2009. Retrieved December 27, 2022.
^ "Basic Plumbing Principles". The Evening Independent. November 10, 1926. Retrieved Dec 27, 2022.
^ "Key To Popular-up Drain Is Fresh Plumber's Putty". Daily News. January 12, 2003. Retrieved December 27, 2022.
^ Carol Potera (August 2022). "Plumbing Pathogens: A Fixture in Hospitals and Homes". Environmental Health Perspectives. 123 (8): A217. doi:10.1289/ehp.123-A217. PMC4528999. PMID 26230512.
^ ^a ^b Joseph O. Falkinham 3; Elizabeth D. Hilborn; Matthew J. Arduino; Amy Pruden; Marc A. Edwards (Baronial 2022). "Epidemiology and Ecology of Opportunistic Premises Plumbing Pathogens: Legionella pneumophila, Mycobacterium avium, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa". Environmental Health Perspectives. 123 (8): 749–758. doi:10.1289/ehp.1408692. PMC4529011. PMID 25793551.
^ "PLUMBING REGULATIONS 2008 - REG 11 Plumbing work that may be carried out by unlicensed or unregistered persons". classic.austlii.edu.au . Retrieved November 13, 2022.
^ "The Plumbing Code of Australia (PCA) - Australian Government". ablis.gov.au. November 14, 2022. Retrieved Nov xiv, 2022.
^ "Regulatory Framework | Australian Building Codes Lath". world wide web.abcb.gov.au . Retrieved Nov xiii, 2022.
^ "Nytt om føringsveier for tappevann - Byggebransjens våtromsnorm". www.byggforsk.no . Retrieved December 25, 2022.
^ "The Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Technology (CIPHE)". Retrieved March 29, 2022.
^ "World Plumbing Council". Retrieved October 11, 2009.
^ "WHO Wellness aspects of plumbing". Archived from the original on June 13, 2006. Retrieved Oct xi, 2009.
^ "World Plumbing Council". Archived from the original on January 17, 2009. Retrieved Oct eleven, 2009.
^ "Section 1417 of the Safe Drinking Water Human action: Prohibition on Use of Lead Pipes, Solder, and Flux". August 3, 2022. Retrieved December 20, 2022.

Notes

^ Materials used to brand water pipes are polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene, polyethylene, ductile fe, bandage iron, steel, copper and formerly lead.

External links